Religious
Determinants of Food Choices
Judaism | Christianity
| Islam
| Hinduism
| Buddhism
| Some
References on Food and Religion
"Every religion provides ways by which humans can try to relate to a
supreme being or some supernatural force. Many of the practices and beliefs of
the various religions .. are attempts to explain those things which humans
themselves can not understand or control. Each religion has evolved certain
rituals or customs which are important to the members of that religion. The
observance of these rituals and customs is believed to be mandatory since they
express and reaffirm the various beliefs of the religion."
-- Lowenberg, M.E., et al. (1968) Food and Man. John Wiley & Sons, New
York; p. 126.
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Roles of food in religion: |
1. to communicate with God (e.g., through saying thanks or asking blessing);
2. to demonstrate faith through acceptance of divine directives concerning diet;
3. to develop discipline through fasting.
Dietary restrictions may include:
a) what foods may and may not be eaten;
b) what to eat on certain days of the year;
c) time of day to eat;
d) how to prepare food;
e) when and how long to fast.
-- Fieldhouse, P. (1986) Food and Nutrition: Customs and Culture. Croom Helm,
London; p. 111.
Observances of food codes strenthens group identity, especially in the
midst of unbelievers.
Judaism
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Current major divisions |
Orthodox (observe all laws, in all details);
Reform
(do not accept dietary laws as permanently binding);
Conservative (intermediate)
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Religious precepts |
The Torah (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy).
The Talmud: later interpretations of the Torah.
The Jews view themselves as chosen people of God, and as such have specific
responsibilities to God.
Philosophy: Humans are capable of perfection, and each is responsible for
his/her own actions; each of us chooses between right and wrong. However, innate
human weakness gives rise unavoidably to sin. The main concern of Judaism is the
present life (although it believes in a hereafter), and it provides ways to
fulfill moral responsibilities to God.
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Typical diet of ancient Palestine |
Bread, salt, olive oil, olives,
wine, (rarely) dried fish. Red meat eaten only on special feasts.
Cheese only for the wealthy.
Bread: major staple, eaten at all meals
(important symbolism of 'bread from heaven,'
manna -- dependence on God)
Oil: symbol of prosperity
(especially important for nomads)
Wine: symbol of joy
(drunkeness is condemned, but shared wine
symbolizes communal joy)
Vegetables: most common were probably leeks,onions, cucumbers, garlic;
herbs and spices for the wealthy.
Specific food instructions: Leviticus, Chap. 11 and Deuteronomy, Chap. 14.
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Dietary laws |
kashrut; "kosher" or "kasher" means
"fit," permitted foods which have been prepared appropriately.
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Food restrictions |
Only animals with cloven hooves and which chew the cud
may be eaten (e.g., cattle, sheep, goats, deer; pigs are expressly forbidden).
Only those fish which have scales and fins may be eaten. Poultry may be eaten.
Carnivorous animals may not be eaten. Only meat from animals which have been
slaughtered by the prescribed method may be eaten; a rabbi must supervise the
slaughter of all food animals.
Meat and dairy foods may not be eaten in the same meal.
Blood may not be consumed. The sciatic nerve may not be eaten. Internal fat may
not be eaten.
All foods must be without blemish.
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Holy days and festivals |
Sabbath: begins at sundown Friday, ends at sundown on Saturday. A day of rest:
in Orthodox practice, food may not be prepared on the Sabbath. Challah (braided
bread) is typical.
New Year: Ten solemn, holy days, from Rosh Hashanah (Day of Judgment) to Yom
Kippur (Day of Atonement -- a day of fasting). September or October.
Festival of Pesach (Passover): Eight days. No leavened bread allowed; flour not
allowed.
Sukkot (Feast of Tabernacles): thanksgiving; September or October.
Hanukkah (Festival of Lights): eight days, usu. December. Commemorates recapture
of the Temple in Jerusalem in 169 BC.
Purim: February or March. Rescue of the Persian Jews from Haman by Queen Esther.
Seder (Passover) symbols:
Z'roah (Pesach) -- roasted shank bone, symbolic of paschal lamb eaten in Egypt
Beitzah -- roasted egg, representing offerings at the Temple in Jerusalem.
Matzo ('bread of affliction") -- unleavened bread; a symbol of divine help
Marror (Moror) (bitter herbs) -- bitterness of life in slavery under Egyptians
Haroset (Charoses) (ground apples, red wine, cinnamon, sugar, perhaps walnuts)
-- to represent mortar used in slavery in Egypt
Karpas -- green vegetable (lettuce or parsley). Dipped in salt water to
represent tears shed in slavery. Also symbolizes springtime.
A special cup, for Elijah (messenger of God)
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Most widely spread of the world's religions.
Historical: Orthodox Christianity is oldest branch.
Split between Orthodox church (in Constantinople) and Catholic church (in Rome)
in 1045.
Protestant Reformation (led by Martin Luther, John Calvin, among others) in
1500's.
Note absence of Jewish food taboos: Peter's vision, and the command "Do
not call anything impure that God has made clean."
- Acts 10:9-23.
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Christian sacraments |
Baptism (entering the church)
Confirmation (acceptance of the Holy Spirit)
Communion (partaking of God's presence by sharing bread and wine)
Marriage
Unction (assurance of salvation to the sick and dying)
Penance (confession of sins)
Ordination of clergy
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Roman Catholicism |
Dietary practices: until 1966, abstinence from meat (but not eggs or milk
products) on Fridays.
Holidays and feasts: Christmas; Easter
Annunciation (March 25); Palm Sunday (Sunday before Easter); Ascension (40 days
after Easter); Pentecost Sunday (50 days after Easter).
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Eastern Orthodox |
Fourteen self-governing churches: Constantinople (Istanbul), Alexandria,
Antioch, Jerusalem, and Cyprus dating from Byzantine Empire; Russian, Rumanian,
Yugoslavian, Bulgarian, Greek and Georgian national churches; plus 3 minority
churches in other countries.
Dietary practices: Fast days: strictly, every Wednesday and Friday, as well
as other specific days (esp. Advent and Lent). "Fasting" means
avoiding certain foods, but not all foods. All meat and animal products (incl.
milk and milk products) and fish are avoided on fast days.
A number of specific feast days, determined in part by specific
culture/nationality.
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Protestants |
Considerable diversity; little emphasis on fasting or holy days, except
Christmas and Easter.
One example: Seventh-Day Adventists: led by Mrs. Ellen White in late 1800's,
who had numerous visions, including some involving health and diet. Note era of
social and moral and health reform in US, cf. Rev. Sylvester Graham.
Attitude that the body is the temple of God, hence to be cared for (Corinthians
3:16-17).
Many Adventists are lacto-ovo-vegetarians; avoid tea, coffee, and alcohol, as
well as tobacco products. Practice moderation.
Note role of Adventists in establishing health sanitorium in Battle Creek,
Michigan, which became source of John Kellog's breakfast cereal empire.
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Islam
(Islam: "submission to the will of God"; Moslem: "one who
submits")
Established by Mohammed ("The Praised One") in 622 AD, based in part
on Jewish and Christian traditions.
Qur'an (Koran) contains dietary regulations.
Some diversity in food habits, depending on local cultures (Indonesian Moslems
have different strictures than Arab Moslems, for example).
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Major sects in Islam |
Sunni (majority): believe the caliphate is an elective office, to be held by a
member of the tribe of Mohammed
Shi'ites (second largest group): believe the caliphate is rightfully held by Ali
(Mohammed's son-in-law) and his descendants. Primarily found in Iran,
Iraq, Yemen, and India.
Khawarij: believe caliphate is open to any believer who is found fit.
Primarily found in eastern Arabia and North Africa
Sufis: ascetic mystics who seek a close union with God in the present.
Halal: permitted foods
Haram: prohibited foods
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Five Pillars of Islam |
Faith; prayer; alms giving; fasting; pilgrimage to Mecca.
Fasting fulfills religious obligation, earns the pleasure of Allah, wipes out
previous sins, and helps the faithful appreciate the hunger of the poor.
"Every good act that a man does shall receive from ten to seven hundred
rewards, but the rewards of fasting are beyond bounds for fasting is for God
alone and He will give its rewards." -- Mohammed.
Eating is considered a matter of worship. One is to eat for survival and good
health; self-indulgence is not permitted. Food is to be shared. Food is not be
thrown away or wasted.
Dietary prohibitions: very similar to Jewish law: prohibition of pork,
carnivorous animals, blood. However, all foods not specifically prohibited may
be eaten. Specific ritual for slaughter of animals.
Alcoholic beverages are forbidden by the Qur'an, as are other intoxicants.
Use of stimulants (coffee and tea) and smoking are discouraged for the devout.
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Major fast |
Ramadan (in ninth lunar month of each year; commemorates
first revelation to Mohammed by the angel Gabriel); complete abstinence from
food and water from sunrise to sunset for one month (light meals consumed after
sundown), for all who have reached the 'age of responsibility' (12 y in girls,
15 y in boys).
Exemptions: elderly persons in poor health; pregnant and nursing women;
menstruating women; the sick; travellers on journeys of more than three days;
individuals doing hard labor. Observance of the Ramadan fast is a yearly
reaffirmation of one's allegiance to Islam; also, faithful observance of the
fast results in remission of sin.
Several other fast days during the year for the devout, as well as every
Monday and Thursday, and the 13th, 14th, and 15th of each month.
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Feast Days |
Eid al-Fitr (Feast of Fast Breaking): end of Ramadan
Eid al'Azha (Festival of Sacrifice): commeration of Abraham's willingness to
sacrifice his son Ishmael to God (end of the hajj)
Shah-i-Barat ("the night in the middle of the Shaban")
Nau-Roz (New Year's Day; primarily celebrated by Iranians): first day after the
sun crosses the vernal equinox
Maulud n'Nabi: Birthday of Mohammed
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Hinduism
("the people and culture of the Indus river region")
Originated in India ~ 4000 years ago. The numerous gods and goddesses are all
manifestations of a single supreme being, "Brahman".
The goals of life: dharma (righteousness); artha (worldly
prosperity); kama (enjoyment); moksha (liberation). Each person is
individually responsible for his/her own morality and fate.
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Caste system |
Four primary castes:
Brahmins (priests and teachers);
Ksatriyas (warriors and rulers);
Vaisyas (farmers and traders);
Sudras (menial laborers);
Outcasts (untouchables -- include butchers and leather workers).
Caste determines social structure, including foods to be eaten. Performing moral
duties well may result in rebirth in a higher caste.
"No sin is attached to eating flesh or drinking wine, or gratifying
the sexual urge, for these are the natural propensities of humans; but
abstinence from these bears greater fruits."
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Sanctity of all life |
Most devout Hindus are vegetarian; the soul of an ancestor may be in an animal.
Some Hindus do not eat eggs. Vegetarianism became established in Hinduism
because of Buddhist emphasis on respect for life (400-300 BC).
The cow is sacred, and beef is forbidden; some people (especially lower castes)
will eat pork and chicken. Milk and ghee (clarified butter) are sacred because
they are products of the sacred cow; a Brahmin may accept milk or foods cooked
in ghee from even a Sudra.
Coconut is also sacred (the three 'eyes' of the coconut represent the three eyes
of Shiva).
Other forbidden foods: domestic fowl, salted pork, onions, garlic, turnips, and
mushrooms. Some avoid red foods (tomatoes) because of association with blood.
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Buddhism
Originated in 6th century BC, as outgrowth of Hinduism, or revolt against
orthodox Hinduism. After years of study and searching, Siddhartha Gautama
achieved enlightenment and became the Buddha.
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Four Noble Truths |
1. Existence is suffering
2. This suffering is due to selfish desires
3. The cure of suffering is to destroy these selfish desires
4. This cure can be accomplished by practicing the Eight-Fold Path: right
belief, right thought, right speech, right action, right means of livelihood,
right exertion, right remembrance, and right meditation.
By following the Eight-Fold Path through successive reincarnations, one can
achieve Enlightenment (Nirvana).
Buddhists vow to abstain from killing or otherwise injuring living creatures;
however, some Buddhists do eat meat, and many eat fish.
Fasting and feasting: Buddhist monks may fast twice a month (new moon and
full moon). Most monks do not eat after noon. Buddhist festivals vary with
region.
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Some References on Food and
Religion
Booth, D.A. (1994) Psychology of Nutrition. Taylor & Francis,
London.
Bosley, G.C. & Hardinge, M.G. (1992) Seventh-day Adventists: dietary
standards and concerns. Food Technol. 46:112-113.
Bryant, C.A., Courtney, A., Markesbery, B.A. & DeWalt, K.M. (1985) The
Cultural Feast: An Introduction to Food and Society. West Publishing
Co., St. Paul.
Chaudry, M.M. (1992) Islamic food laws: philosophical basis and practical
implications. Food Technol. 6:92-93.
Fieldhouse, P. (1986) Food and Nutrition: Customs and Culture. Croom
Helm, London.
Huang, Y.W. & Ang, C.Y.W. (1992) Vegetarian foods for Chinese Buddhists. Food
Technol. 46:105-108.
Kilara, A. & Iya, K.K. (1992) Food and dietary habits of the Hindu. Food
Technol. 46:94-104.
Kittler, P.G. & Sucher, K. (1989) Food and Culture in America: A
Nutrition Handbook. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Pike, O.A. (1992) The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints: dietary
practices and health. Food Technol. 46:118-121.
Soler, J. (1979) The semiotics of food in the Bible. In: Food and Drink in
History (Forster, R. & Ranum, O. eds.), pp. 126-138. Johns Hopkins
University Press, Baltimore.
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